Gardner, Martin From the point of view of subjective probability, the standard assumptions can be derived from the problem statement: they follow from our total lack of information about how the car is hidden, how the player initially chooses a door, and how the host chooses a door to open if there's a choice. Gydymo metu reikia sistemingai tikrinti akių skausmą ir atlikti kraujo tyrimus.
The player absoliutus svorio netekimas roseville ca an equal chance of initially selecting the car, Goat A, or Goat B. Simulations[edit source editbeta] Simulation of 30 outcomes of the Monty Hall problem A simple way to demonstrate that a switching strategy really does win two out of three times on the average is to simulate the game with playing cards Gardner b; vos Savantp. Three cards from an ordinary deck are used to represent the three doors; one 'special' card such as the Ace of Spades should represent the door with the car, and ordinary cards, such as the two red twos, represent the goat doors.
The simulation, using the following procedure, can be repeated several times to simulate multiple rounds of the game. One card is dealt face-down at random to the 'player', to represent the door the player picks initially.
Then, looking at the remaining two cards, at least one of which must be a red two, the 'host' discards a red two. If the card remaining in the host's hand is the Ace of Spades, this is recorded as a round where the player would have won by switching; if the host is holding a red two, the round is recorded as one where staying would have won.
As this experiment is repeated over several rounds, the observed win rate for each strategy is likely to approximate its theoretical win probability. Repeated plays also make it clearer why switching is the better strategy.
After one card has been dealt to the player, it is already determined whether amino x svorio metimui will win the round for the player; and two times out of three the Ace of Spades is in the host's hand. If this is not convincing, the simulation can be done with the entire deck, dealing one card to the player and keeping the other 51 Gardner b; Adams In this variant the Ace of Spades goes to the host 51 times out of 52, and stays with the host no matter how many non-Ace cards are discarded.
Another kūno plonas rosario, suggested by vos Savant, employs the "host" hiding a penny, representing the car, under one of three cups, representing the doors; or hiding a pea under one of three shells. Solutions using conditional probability[edit source editbeta] The player is only asked whether or not he would like to switch after the host has opened a particular door, different from the player's initial choice, and revealed a goat behind it.
In order to be sure of having the best possible chance of getting the car, the player should clearly make his decision of whether or not to switch on the basis of the probability that the car is behind the other closed door, given all the information which he has at this moment. That information consists, in the example given by Marilyn vos Savant, of the fact that it was door 1 which was initially chosen by himself, and that it was door 3 which was opened by the host to reveal a goat.
Refining the simple solution[edit source editbeta] Given the player's initial choice, door 1, the host might also have opened door 2 to reveal a goat.
Suppose we assume that the host is equally likely to open either door 2 or 3 if the car is behind door 1. We already assumed that the car is equally likely behind any of the three doors, and this absoliutus svorio netekimas roseville ca so after the player has made his initial choice. It follows that the probability that the car is behind door 1 given the host opens door 3 and the player initially chose door 1 must equal the probability that the car is behind door 1 given the host opens absoliutus svorio netekimas roseville ca 2 and the player initially chose door 1, since all elementary probabilities in the problem probabilities of locations of car given the player initially chose door 1, and probabilities of which door the host will open if the car is behind door 1, the door chosen by the player mėnesį lieknėti unchanged by interchanging the door numbers 2 absoliutus svorio netekimas roseville ca 3.
In other words, given that the player initially chose door 1, whether the host opens door 2 or door 3 gives us no information at all as to whether or not the car is behind door 1.
Moreover, the host is certainly going to open a different door to reveal a goat, so opening a door which door, door 2 or door 3, unspecified does not change this probability. But these two probabilities are the same. This more refined analysis which can be found in the published discussion following the paper of Morgan et al.
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For example, if we imagine repetitions of the show, in all of which the player initially chooses door 1, a strategy of "always switching" will win about times — namely every time the car is not behind door 1. The solutions in this section consider just those cases in which not only the player picked door 1, but moreover the host went on to open door 3. After all, it is only after a door was opened to reveal a goat that the player was asked if he wants to switch or not.
Of our total of repetitions, door 3 will be opened by the host about times: the other times the host will open door 2. The following solutions show that when we restrict attention to the first mentioned cases player initially picked door 1, host went on to reveal a goat behind door 3the car will be behind door 2 about times, but behind door 1 only about 50 times.
Tree showing the probability of every possible outcome if the player initially picks Door 1 By definition, the conditional probability of winning by switching given the contestant initially picks door 1 and the host opens door 3 is the probability the car is behind door 2 and the host opens door 3 divided by the probability the host opens door 3.
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These probabilities can be determined referring to the conditional probability table below, or to an equivalent decision tree as shown to the right Chun ; Carlton ; Grinstead and Snell — These are the only possibilities given the player picks door 1 and the host opens door 3.
The conditional probability table below shows how cases, in all of which the player initially chooses door 1, would be split up, on average, according to the location of the car and the choice of door to open by the host. Here it is with probabilities included:Case Prob.
This splits case 2 into two equally likely subcases 2a and 2b, and case 3 into two equally likely subcases 3a and 3b:Case Prob.
In three of the six equally likely cases, the host opens door 3. In two of those three cases, the car is behind door 2. Bayes' theorem[edit source editbeta] Many probability text books and articles in the field of probability theory and the teaching of probability theory derive the conditional probability solution through a formal application of Bayes' theorem; among them Gill, and Henze, Use of the odds form of Bayes' theorem, often called Bayes' rule, makes such a derivation more transparent Rosenthal, aRosenthal, b.
Initially, the car is equally likely behind any of the three absoliutus svorio netekimas roseville ca the odds on door 1, door 2, and door 3 are This remains the case after the player has chosen door 1, by independence. According to Bayes' rule, the posterior odds on the location of the car, given the host opens door 3, are equal to the prior odds multiplied by the Bayes factor or likelihood, which is by definition the probability of the new piece of information host opens door 3 under each of the hypotheses considered location of the car.
Thus the posterior odds become equal to the Bayes factor 1 : 2 : 0. Given the host opened door 3, the probability the car is behind door 3 is zero, and it is twice more likely to be behind door 2 than door 1. Richard Gill uses a similar argument to patch a missing step in Devlin's combined doors solution Devlindescribed above "Adams and Devlin".
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Devlin does not explain why the information of which door had been opened by the host did not change the odds on door 1 hiding the car. The contestant is not just given the opportunity to choose between door 1 and doors 2 plus 3 — he is also told something specific about those two doors "no car behind door 3".
Correspondents pointed out this missing step to Devlin and he later Devlin retracted his "combined doors" solution, giving a direct calculation using Bayes theorem instead, saying that though unintuitive, it did at least give one the guarantee of obtaining the right answer in an automatic way. The justification provided by Gill is as follows. Given the car is not behind door 1 the door initially chosen by the contestantit is equally likely that it is behind door 2 or door 3.
In those cases, the host is forced to open the other door. The information "host opens door 3" contributes a Bayes factor or likelihood ratio of 50 : 50, or 1 : 1, concerning the question whether or not the car is behind door 1. Initially, the odds against door 1 hiding the car were 2 : 1. Therefore the posterior odds against door 1 hiding the car remain the same as the prior odds, 2 : 1.
In words, the information which door is opened by the host door 2 or door 3? Strategic dominance solution[edit source editbeta] Going back to Absoliutus svorio netekimas roseville ca Monty Hall problem is also much studied in the literature on game theory and decision theory, and also some popular solutions for instance, that were published in The Economist, see above, among the simple solutions correspond to this point of view.
Vos Savant asks for a decision, not a chance. And the chance aspects of how the car is hidden and how an unchosen door is opened are unknown. From this point of view, one has to remember that the player has two opportunities to make choices: first of all, which door to choose initially; and secondly, whether or not to switch.
Since he does not know how the car is hidden nor how the host makes choices, he may be able to make use of his first choice opportunity, as it were to neutralize the actions of the team running the quiz show, including the host.
Following Gill, a strategy of contestant involves two actions: the initial choice of a door and the decision to switch or to stick which may depend on both the door initially chosen and the door to which the host offers switching. For instance, one contestant's strategy is "choose door 1, then switch to door 2 when offered, and do not switch to door 3 when offered.
Elementary comparison of contestant's strategies shows that for every strategy A there is another strategy B "pick a door then switch no matter what happens" which dominates it Gnedin, No matter how the car is hidden and no matter which rule the host uses when he has a choice between two goats, if A wins the car then B also does.
For example, strategy A "pick door 1 then always stick with it" is dominated by the strategy B "pick door 2 then always switch after the host reveals a door": A wins when door 1 conceals the car, while B wins when one of the doors 1 and 3 conceals the car.
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Similarly, strategy A "pick door 1 then switch to door 2 if offeredbut do not switch to door 3 if offered " is dominated by strategy B "pick door 3 then always switch". Dominance is a strong reason to seek for a solution among always-switching strategies, under fairly general assumptions on the environment in which the contestant is making decisions.
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In particular, if the car is hidden by means of some randomization device — like tossing symmetric or asymmetric three-sided die — the dominance implies that a strategy maximizing the probability of winning the car will be among three always-switching strategies, namely it will be the strategy which initially picks the least likely door then switches no matter which door to switch is offered by the host.
Strategic dominance links the Monty Hall problem to the game theory. In the zero-sum game setting of Gill,discarding the nonswitching strategies reduces the game to the following simple variant: the host or the TV-team decides on the door to hide the car, and the contestant chooses absoliutus svorio netekimas roseville ca doors i. The contestant wins and her opponent loses if the car is behind one of the two doors she chose.
Confusion and criticism[edit source editbeta] Sources of confusion[edit source editbeta] When first presented with the Monty Hall problem an overwhelming majority of people assume that paverskite savo kūną liekna programa door has an equal probability and conclude that switching does not matter Mueser and Granberg, Most statements of the problem, notably the one in Parade Magazine, do not match the rules of the actual game show Krauss and Wang,and do not fully specify the host's behavior or that the car's location is randomly selected Granberg and Brown, absoliutus svorio netekimas roseville ca Krauss and Wang conjecture that people make the standard assumptions even if they are not explicitly stated.
From the point of view of subjective probability, absoliutus svorio netekimas roseville ca standard assumptions can be derived from the problem statement: they follow from our total lack of information about how the car is hidden, how the player initially chooses a door, and how the host chooses a door to open if there's a choice.
Although these issues are mathematically significant, even when controlling for these factors nearly all people still think each of the two unopened doors has an equal probability and conclude switching does not matter Mueser and Granberg, This "equal prarasti pilvo riebalus per 2 mėnesius įmanoma assumption is a deeply rooted intuition Falk People strongly tend to think probability is evenly distributed across as many unknowns as are present, whether it is or not Fox and Levav, Steinbach, The problem continues to attract the attention of būdai numesti svorį net nemėginant psychologists.
The typical behaviour of the majority, i. Experimental evidence confirms absoliutus svorio netekimas roseville ca these are plausible explanations which do not depend on probability intuition Morone and Fiore, Among these sources are several that explicitly criticize the popularly presented "simple" solutions, saying these solutions are "correct but Some say that these solutions answer a slightly different question — one phrasing is "you have to announce before a door has been opened whether you plan to switch" Gillmanemphasis in the original.
However, the probability of winning by always switching is a logically distinct concept from the probability of winning by switching given the player has picked door 1 and the host has absoliutus svorio netekimas roseville ca door 3. As one source says, "the distinction between [these questions] seems to confound many" Morgan et al. This fact that these are different can be shown by varying the problem so that these two absoliutus svorio netekimas roseville ca have different numeric values.
For example, assume the contestant knows that Monty does not pick the second door randomly among all legal alternatives but instead, when given an opportunity to pick between two losing doors, Monty will open the one on the right. In this situation the following two questions have different answers: What is the probability of winning the car by always switching?
What is the probability of winning the car given the player has picked door 1 and the host has opened door 3? For this variation, the two questions yield different answers. Morgan et al.